让我们以一个可能是最常见的例子来结束第一部分---- 抛掷一个均匀的硬币(fair coin tossing):通常我们在“概率问题“中一提到“抛一个均匀的硬币“,我们几乎总是隐含着这样的意思:这个硬币出现正面(Head)或者反面(Tail)的“概率“各是 1/2。或者更加具体一些,我们以为,抛出去的硬币出现正面和出现反面的“可能性“是一样的,这样两个事件是“完全对称“的----由于硬币本身物理上的对称性(所谓均匀)而导致的。这里,我们有意无意的忽略了投掷者这个因素。我们在现实生活中,也常常用这样的方式来“随机“的决定一些事情,比如在世界杯上谁先开球等等。 实际上,我们这样做是严重的想当然。主要表现在两个方面: a) 投掷者的影响未必是可以忽视的。极端的情况下,想象一台精密的抛掷机,我们当代的技术显然可以把它做到足够好,使得它完全可以控制抛掷结果。即使在一般情况下,一个普通人,我们有什么理由认为他的习惯动作对于抛掷结果没有任何影响呢?他的意识和愿望对于结果没有任何影响呢?斯坦福大学统计系的教授Persi Diaconis 会在他给学生的第一节课上演示,他可以按照任何给定的序列要求,将一枚普通的硬币精确的掷出相应的结果,“这个世界上没有什么是随机的“,我的一位朋友有幸在他的课堂上目睹了这样有趣的一幕,所以我有幸听到这个生动的故事。
“There is nothing random about this world" --- Prof. Diaconiswww.ddhw.com
b) 其次,我们即使愿意相信正面和反面大致对称,我们又凭什么说他们出现的可能性各是1/2 呢?也就是说,我们为什么有权利不考虑其他的情况呢?比如,硬币落下去之后,立在了地上?或者是落地后碎成了两半,一半正,一半反;或者3片,4 片。。。,或者把地板砸个洞,然后找不到了。。。等等,呵呵,我并不是在搞笑抬杠(至少不完全是),这些事情,找个力气大点的兄弟,或是质量差点的硬币(但仍然均匀),或地板,都不是那么不可能的。
拉普拉斯的定义:(为了避免翻译不当可能带来的不便,请原谅我直接转贴wiki上的原文) The probability of an event is the ratio of the number of cases favorable to it, to the number of all cases possible when nothing leads us to expect that any one of these cases should occur more than any other, which renders them, for us, equally possible. This definition is essentially a consequence of the principle of indifference. If elementary events are assigned equal probabilities, then the probability of a disjunction of elementary events is just the number of events in the disjunction divided by the total number of elementary events.
在了解了测度背后的“源于生活“的背景后,下面为了节省时间和空间(毕竟,我们目前只是在讨论工具而已),请允许我不再详细讨论而直接列出一些重要的概念: 考虑非空集X, 1) X的子集集合F被称为一个á-代数,如果 a) 空集属于F; b) 如果A属于F, 则A的补集也属于F. c)F中任何元素的可数并属于F.
2) 如果F是X的一个á-代数,m:F->[0,正无穷],满足: a) m(空集)= 0; b) á-可加性:对于互不相交的A1,A2,...属于F, A=所有A1,A2,..的并(所以也属于F), m(A) = sum(m(Ai), i=1 to inf). 那么三元组(X, F, m) 叫做一个测度空间,m 叫做测度。F的元叫做可测集。www.ddhw.com
3)对于测度空间(X, F, m), 如果函数 f:X -> R (实数集)满足:任何闭区间[a, b]的原像都是可测的,那么f被称为一个可测函数。
伟大的希尔伯特的公理化梦想被Godel一记粉拳打得粉碎,不过在某些局部,老人家善良的梦想还是得以实现了的,就像金博士的那个梦一样。至少,在概率论方面,实现这个梦想的人是个叫做Kolmogorov的老毛子: Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (Russian: Андре́й Никола́евич Колмого́ров) (25 April 1903 - 20 October 1987) was a Soviet mathematician who made major advances in the fields of probability theory and topology.
对于非数学专业的朋友,我听说过:A Natural Introduction to Probability Theory (Kindle Edition) 作者是 Ronald Meester。书中不涉及测度理论,但是覆盖了很多有用的问题。我没有读过,只是想象,对于不愿意花费时间学习测度理论的朋友们,这样可能实际一些。
对于数学专业的朋友,我比较喜欢:A Course in Probability Theory Revised 作者是有趣的Kai Lai Chung 呵呵,偶喜欢这本书倒不是因为他是个华裔,主要是我个人比较喜欢这本书简洁清晰的风格。关于Chung本人,估计大家都有不少好笑的故事,以后有空可以分享:)
The financial crisis is a sure product of the Wall Street game rules, it has nothing to do with quants indeed. Quants are just soldiers, they do not make any decisions ---- actually they are not even soldiers, but more like guns ---- it is the politicians (senior managements in this case) who make wars and generals (traders, structurers etc.) who run the wars. You can't blame guns for the loss of war, man ... :)
www.ddhw.com
OK, as for Chung, I did not personally sit in his class or any of his students' classes. :) But here is one funny example of his famous arrogance and "humor": many people like his book (including me) and the exercises in that book. In the earlier versions, there was one problem that was particularly hard and one audience from Australia worked diligently on it and after spent 3 months, he could not solve it and thus he wrote to Prof. Chung to ask for help. Chung's help was prompt and simple, "You should be able to finish it in about 2 hours!" He replied. However, after another 3 months, another letter arrived from the same person on the same problem saying he still couldn't figure out how to prove the result. Chung, of course, due to his usual arrogance, felt very proud of it and decided to bring it to his class to entertain his students. In the middle of one of his classes, he brought up the letter and read to his students, claiming "now let us see how stupid they are in Australia!" Then he started to "prove" it. Yet after 30mins, the class end rings, Professor cannot prove it. But that is ok, Chung simply dismissed the class promising he will continue to finish the proof the next class. And he spent the entire next class on it ... and next ... actually after 2 weeks of wasting time, he finally noticed that the problem was wrong and he missed an important condition in his original idea. :D
www.ddhw.com
I think you are asking for Fields Medal winners? Wow, of course there are probability experts. The most famous one is probably Wendelin Werner (Brownian motion is also called Werner process). Then we have Andrei Okounkov (not sure whether he won it due to his work in probability though.). William Gowers who has extensive work in probability also won a Fields medal, yet due to his work in other areas. The celebrated Ito (for Ito's Calculus) did not win Fields medal (probably because he was already too old), but he was awarded Wolf Prize properly. There must be others that I do not know ...
www.ddhw.com
作者: 只需填入未经注册笔名 时间: 2009-2-26 20:05 标题: A little misleading
Brownian motion is also called Werner process in honor of Norbert Wiener...
Not sure if the two Wieners are related...
作者: 只需填入未经注册笔名 时间: 2009-2-26 20:10 标题: Andrey Kolmogorov won Wolf too.
Andrey Kolmogorov won Wolf too.
作者: idiot94 时间: 2009-2-26 20:21 标题: wow, I did not know that .. thanks :) haha .[:-Q]
"The most famous one is probably Wendelin Werner..."
Again, I'm so ignorant. Just googled Wendelin Werner -- a Fields medal winner and an actor! what a rare (if not unique) combination.
www.ddhw.com
Anyway, it seems you are only sure of one mathematican who got Fields (as late as 2006) for his work in probability. Looks like there is still some discrimination against this popular branch.